Myths and Archetypes

Myths and Archetypes

What is a Myth?

"God made man, because he liked to hear a story." So say the Africans, and the rich variety of worldwide mythology proves that God chose wisely!

Myths are stories that are based on tradition. Some may have factual origins, while others are completely fictional. But myths are more than mere stories and they serve a more profound purpose in ancient and modern cultures. Myths are sacred tales that explain the world and man's experience. Myths are as relevant to us today as they were to the ancients. Myths answer timeless questions and serve as a compass to each generation. The myths of lost paradise, for example, give people hope that by living a virtuous life, they can earn a better life in the hereafter. The myths of a golden age give people hope that there are great leaders who will improve their lives. The hero's quest is a model for young men and women to follow, as they accept adult responsibilities. Some myths simply reassure, such as myths that explain natural phenomena as the actions of gods, rather than arbitrary events of nature.

The subjects of myths reflect the universal concerns of mankind throughout history: birth, death, the afterlife, the origin of man and the world, good and evil and the nature of man himself. A myth taps into a universal cultural narrative, the collective wisdom of man. An excellent illustration of the universality of these themes is that so many peoples who have had no contact with each other create myths that are remarkably similar. So, for example, cultures worldwide, from the Middle East to the distant mountains of South America have myths about great floods, virgin births, and the afterlife (more examples of these archetypal themes are shown in earlier posts).

Unlike fairy tales, myths are not always optimistic. True to the nature of life, the essence of myths is such that they are as often warnings as promises; as often laments as celebrations. Many myths are instructive and act as a guide to social norms, taking on cultural taboos such as incest, fratricide, and greed.

Myths are also pervasive in the arts and advertising, for a very simple reason. From film to cars to perfume, advertising uses visual metaphors to speak to us. While artists of every generation reinterpret myths, the same basic patterns have shown up in mythology for thousands of years. A name, phrase, or image based on a familiar myth can speak volumes to those who have been absorbing these mythic tales since birth. When we hear the expression, "Beware of Greeks bearing gifts" or when we see a television commercial featuring a wooden horse full of soldiers, we recognize the reference to Odysseus, who tricked the Trojans into admitting an army into their city this way.

When Jacqueline Kennedy referred to her husband's tenure as a new Camelot, we understand that she meant it was a golden age, like that of King Arthur. When the Greek government dubbed a campaign to rescue ethnic Greeks from behind the walls of the Iron Curtain "Operation Golden Fleece," we understood that they were invoking an ancient name to communicate that these people belonged to them. Each generation of storytellers adds another layer of fact and fiction to the myths, such that the themes and characters of myths are timeless, and endlessly relevant, as they are reinvented and reapplied to the lives of each new generation.


An archetype is a universal symbolic pattern. Examples of archetypal characters are the femme fatale, the trickster, the great mother and father, and the dying god. There are archetypal stories as well. Examples are stories of great floods, virgin births, creation, paradise, the underworld, and a final apocalypse. True to their universal nature, archetypal characters and stories appear again and again in myths across many diverse cultures.

Archetypal myths explain the nature of the world and life. Thus, many peoples have tales to explain the origins of places and objects: the city, the mountain, the temple, the tree and even the stone. Other archetypal myths serve to instruct. For example, the quest archetype is typically a journey where the hero or heroine must overcome their own faults and weaknesses in order to reemerge as a mature, productive member of their society.

While some aspects of these myths have remarkable similarities across cultures, others have peculiarities specific to that land. Sometimes it is possible to trace the inheritance of a part of a myth as it is passed from culture to culture. Here we look at four types of myths and how they show up in cultures across the world.

Women of Power:

A universal archetype featured in the Queen of Sheba myth is that of the Great Mother, or founder of a people. Many cultures have a powerful female goddess as the Great Mother. Often this Great Mother has an equal for a mate, as did Sheba, or is even the dominant one. The Japanese Shinto creation myth features Izanagi and Izanami, who were brother and sister, as were Osiris and Isis, of Egypt. The Greek deities Gaia, mother earth, and Ouranos, the sky god, were so enamored of each other that their continued lovemaking trapped their children in Gaia’s womb. This was also true for the Maori primal couple, Papa and Rangi. Rather than slay their parents, the baby gods and goddesses trapped in Papa’s womb eventually forced them apart. Ouranos fared worse. Gaia made a sickle for her other son, Kronos, who castrated his father, and freed his brothers and sisters.


An Ethiopian depiction of the Queen of Sheba.

Stories of powerful women often feature a female with an air of supernatural mystery who mates with another powerful ruler and is a mother to her nation. Some mythical powerful women are actually goddesses. This is true of the powerful women of Greek myth, such as Hera, Athena, Artemis and Aphrodite, who all have supernatural powers. Many myths of powerful women imply that they are witches, demonic, or have some connection with the supernatural that explains their power. The supernatural aspect of these women is usually represented by an animal. Thus, the Queen of Sheba's leg was cloven like a goat, an animal associated with the Devil. Eve took her bad advice from a serpent and Baba Yaga, a horrible Russian woman, was part snake, as was Medusa of Greek legend.

Sometimes mythical powerful women are warrior queens, like Hippolyta, the Queen of the Amazons. In an interesting twist of life imitating art, the stories of real life warrior queens who fascinate are often retold through the mythical archetype. Thus, the real life stories of Boudica, the first Queen of Britain, Joan of Arc of France, Catherine the Great of Russia and Cleopatra of Egypt were enhanced, until they featured elements of the classical powerful woman story: trickery, sexuality, otherworldly influence and ambition.

Paradise:

Myths about a lost paradise often fall into three categories. First, a paradise on earth which is difficult to find. Second, a place on earth that is nearby, but that it is in an alternate reality. Third, not a place, but an enlightened state of being. In these paradises, or states of being, there is no need for war, or toil and humankind lives in happiness and fulfillment. These myths express hope that the paradise can be regained, either by finding its earthly location, or by waiting for a future time when mankind shall redeem itself.

Cultures that feature a remote, inaccessible paradise often place it on a distant mountain, like the Tibetan myth of Shangri-La, or the myth of the Land of the Kachinas, the lost paradise of the Hopi people of North America. The invisible Celtic paradiscal otherworlds, on the other hand, are located nearby. These otherworlds are separated from man's world by thin veils, such as the veil between the English town of Glastonbury and the mythical Avalon.

A central feature of paradise myths is that man loses his innocence and, as a result, is cast from paradise. Thus, Eden was lost to Adam and Eve when they partook of the tree of knowledge. The Hopis believe that man once lived in an underworld paradise, until licentiousness caused the waters to rise and flood him out. The Hindis believe that the earth has had four progressively worse ages. The first was Kriti Yuga, the First and Perfect Age, lost to man due to his actions.

Most North American Native cultures also believe in four or five ages, starting with a Golden Age. In Greek classical mythology, the reign of Cronus, the father of Zeus, had peace and harmony, and humans did not grow old, but died peacefully. This was lost when Prometheus gave the secret of fire to men, and Zeus allowed Pandora to open her box, unleashing evil.


A map of the mythical land of Shambala, surrounded by its ring of peaks with the palace at the center. Musee Guimet Paris/Giraudon

In many cultures, an individual's personal qualities and actions are his ticket to paradise. Thus, for the Tibetans it is only the enlightened who are on the path to Shangri-La. Christians see a good life and forgiveness of sins as the path to paradise. The Germanic otherworld is open only to specially chosen warriors. The Celtic paradisical otherworlds are only open to seers, bards, and heroes who have proven great worthiness. The one exception is October 31st of each year, when the gates to the otherworlds are open. This tradition eventually became Halloween!

Most cultures saw the lost paradise or otherworld as the home of their gods. In Germanic mythology, Asgard was the divine stronghold of the Aesir, the younger and stronger branch of the gods. Vanaheim was the home of the Vanir, the other branch. Asgard was a mighty castle-city, housing Valhalla, the enormous hall, where slain warriors who were chosen by the god Odin to fight the final apocalyptic battle would go to wait. In order to enter the great hall of Valhalla, the newly slain warriors had to enter through a sacred gate, after passing through several obstacles.

Hero:

While many heroic figures perform quests and daring tasks, only a few rise to the level of superhero. These heroes represent the best attributes of their people and often preside over a golden age. Examples are King Arthur of Britain, King Solomon of Israel and the mysterious Christian priest Prestor John. Prestor John was supposedly king of a hidden Christian kingdom that was a wealthy paradise. In the Middle Ages, especially, many searched for this kingdom in Asia and Africa.

These heroic characters typically have supernatural births, like the Christian Jesus and the Aztec/Toltec snake god, Quetzlcoatl, who were born to virgins. Quetzlcoatl was the Aztec's most important god. Like Arthur, when he left his people he promised to return. The Aztecs believed that his return would herald the apocalypse. The Native American Blackfoot tribe has a hero named Kutoyis, who was born of a blood clot from a wounded buffalo. Kutoyis made it his mission to travel from village to village, freeing those who were being treated unjustly. Herakles the Greek (also known as Hercules), was fathered by the god Zeus. Buddha was born from his mother's dreams.

The reign of these world heroes is often foretold or ordained by the gods or the seers, as is true for King Arthur and Jesus. They often have lineages linking them to the gods, or to past heroic kings. Some mature very early, like Arthur, the Buddha, Herakles, and the Babylonian Gilgamesh, who was part god.

Many have their lives threatened from birth. The threat may come from kings, monsters, or jealous relatives as in the case of Jesus, Kutoyis, and Herakles. Often, they are hidden and raised by people other than their families. Moses is hidden in a basket, until rescued. Herakles is left in the wild, until Hera, Queen of the Gods, is fooled into suckling him, guaranteeing him immortality. Some have supernatural protection, like Arthur, who was protected by Merlin.

Some heroes have a following of fellow heroes who rally around them, serve them, and protect them like the Irish Finn MacCool's Fianna (from whom modern Irish patriots derive the name Fenian). Other examples include Arthur's knights and Jesus' Apostles.


Arthur's Round Table at Winchester, made for a tournament in 1290

Most often these mythical heroes require special weapons. Arthur had the magical sword Excalibur. Beowulf, the Danish hero who slew Grendel the dragon, had a similarly magical sword. Thor, the Norse god of Thunder, had the hammer Mjollnir, which returned to him like a boomerang. He also had a magic belt which doubled his strength. One time the frost giants stole Thor's hammer and demanded a bride in return. Thor disguised himself as a woman and travelled to the wedding. The frost giants were surprised to see the bride eat a whole ox, eight salmon, and three barrels of wine. Thor got his hammer back! Odin, favorite god of the Vikings, had an infallible spear named Gungnir, made by dwarfs.

At the end of their story, many of these heroes become immortal, like Herakles, who rises to Mount Olympus, home of the gods. In some cases, they rise from death and come again, like Jesus. Quetzlcoatl and Arthur announce their intention to return again. And the Blackfoot hero Kutoyis repeatedly resurrects himself from a bag of bones. Sometimes these heroes are men of peace and inspire new religions, like Jesus and the Buddha, but more often they are, by necessity, men of war. They are valiant, inspiring, and wise, although not without flaws.

Quest:

Joseph Campbell described myths as music we dance to, even when we cannot name the tune. Of all the mythical songs, the hero's quest is one that touches us all profoundly. Campbell believed that we each have a quest and that the hero has a thousand faces. The hero's quest archetype is pervasive and Campbell outlined its model step by step.

The story of the hero's quest typically begins in the hero's ordinary world, when he or she receives a call to adventure from a herald. Many heroes initially refuse the call, until a mentor reassures them that they are capable. After this meeting with the mentor, they must enter the world of the quest. They meet allies and enemies along the way and are tested frequently. As they near the source of their quest, they usually face one final ordeal. Upon their success, they take the object of their quest, and make their way home. The way home is not always easy, but eventually they return to their ordinary world with their prize.


Jason is regurgitated after being swallowed by a serpent. Vatican Museums and Galleries

The hero may search for an object or he may search for knowledge for himself or his people. Sometimes his quest is to right a wrong. The hero's quest may be prophecied. Jason's task is to secure the Golden Fleece and thus reclaim his crown. Percival, one of King Arthur's knights, searches for the Holy Grail. The Babylonian hero Gilgamesh, afraid of death, searches for immortality. Bran, the Irish equivalent of the Greek voyager Odysseus, sails for centuries on a quest for the lands beyond the sea.

The hero receives the call to adventure in different ways. Joan of Arc hears voices telling her she is to save France. Moses is summoned by the burning bush to lead his people on a quest for the Promised Land. Some heroes have the counsel of wise women like Jason, who had Aphrodite, and Gilgamesh, who was guided by the goddess Saduri. Sometimes they are tempted by femme fatales who do not always mean them well. The sorceress Medea aided Jason in his challeges in exchange for marrying her, but later she destroyed his family. Gilgamesh rejected the advances of goddess Ianna-Ishtar, which resulted in the death of his best friend.

The hero's quest is dangerous, and often involves facing death itself. Joseph Campbell posited that this aspect of the hero's journey symbolizes the need to confront one's mortality. The hero may be required to travel into the otherworld in order to face death. Or, he or she may face supernatural creatures. The Greek Herakles fights many different monsters. Gilgamesh deliberately chooses to face a firebreathing giant as an adventure, in order to entertain his friend Enkidu, who has become bored by the soft city life. The Native American hero, Wunzh, made famous by Henry Longfellow the American poet as Hiawatha, confronts monsters in order to discover corn and brings it back to his people.

Once the questing heroes have faced his or her trials successfully, they return to their people, usually transformed by their experience.